Appropriate Sanitation Technologies for Addressing Deficiencies in Provision in Low- and Middle-Income Nations

Rather than discuss how ‘sanitation’ can be provided or improved for those who are currently unserved or inadequately served, this paper will review three initiatives that did provide or improve provision for low-income groups on a large scale: the Orangi Pilot Project-supported initiatives in many locations in Pakistan; the community-designed and managed toilet blocks undertaken by slum and pavement dweller organizations and federations in India, with the Indian NGO SPARC; and the Baan Mankong (secure tenure) programme in Thailand. Brief descriptions will also be included of three other sanitation initiatives: the community and public toilet-blocks in Dhaka and Chittagong supported by local NGOs and WaterAid; the condominial sewer programme in Brazil; and the serviced site schemes in Windhoek, Namibia. After this, the paper will reflect on the questions specified in the terms of reference: · How was the technology developed and delivered? Can we talk about a value-chain in sanitation service supply? · Who were the main promoters and suppliers – government, donor, NGO or small-scale private sector? · What was the role of community participation? · What was the effect on household demand for sanitation because of the availability of new appropriate technology? Are more income-equal countries more likely to make appropriate sanitation technology choices because of how income inequality skews household demand for sanitation? · What is the potential of different technologies for providing labour-intensive employment in the sanitation sector as part of a wider livelihoods strategy, and the role of public works and microfinance in stimulating this? It will also reflect on whether a focus on community action for sanitation absolves the state of what should be its responsibilities. The examples given in this paper are good pragmatic local responses to local opportunities, working within local constraints.